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The Car-Free City Challenge
The EU “Fit for 55” package strives for a 55% greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction by 2030 (European Union, 2024). To achieve this target, radical steps must be taken in all leading GHG emission sectors. Transport is the second largest GHG emitter, accounting for 23.1% of the total emissions in the EU (Statista, 2024). Road transport accounts for 76% of emissions (Greenhouse Gas Emissions From Transport in Europe, 2023). While other sectors have successfully reduced their GHG emissions, in the transport sector emissions have continued to rise (European Environment Agency, 2022). Current policies are predicted to lower transport-sector GHG emissions, but only 35% by 2050, compared to 1990 levels. This is not sufficient to reach the EU climate neutrality targets (European Environment Agency, 2022). More radical measures are required to reach the 2030 climate goals (Graham-Rowe, 2011).
The twentieth century has been described as “the century of the car” (Gilroy, 2000). Globally, there are approximately 2.2 billion registered motor vehicles (Glazener et al., 2022) and the number is projected to increase up to fourfold in the next decades (Dalkmann and Sakamoto, 2011). A rise in vehicle numbers, regardless of electric or combustion-engine, will lead to more demand for roads. This exacerbates urban heat islands because of the low albedo of asphalt roads (AzariJafari and Kirchain, 2021). Currently, cities cater too much to private vehicles and too little to public transport, walking, and cycling (Nieuwenhuijsen and Khreis, 2016). Several studies have shown that decreasing car use is one of the most efficient methods to reduce per capita emissions (Ivanova et al., 2020; Wynes et al., 2018). Car-free city models not only radically reduce GHG emissions (Woodcock et al., 2009), they also increase public health (Nieuwenhuijsen and Khreis, 2016).
This policy statement recommends five policies for the EU transition to car-free cities including the reduction of parking spaces, land use planning to support public transport, expansion of pedestrian and cycling areas and routes, regulatory restrictions, and car-free days.
Policy #1: Decrease Parking Space
Decreasing parking spaces can radically shift urban planning models towards car-free cities. It is estimated that almost half of urban car trips are under five kilometers (Xia et al., 2013), and that cars are parked approximately 95% of the time (Knack, 2005). The European Union (2021) estimates that passenger car occupancy rates are on average between only 1.20 and 1.90. In major cities the figures are even lower. For example, in Vienna there is on average only 1.14 passenger car occupancy (Linien).
Many scholars suggest that implementing parking restrictions is one of the most successful policy instruments to phase out cars in cities (Buehler et al. 2017; Crawford, 2000; Kuss and Kimberly, 2022). Ponteverde has been regarded as a pioneer for car-free cities, banning cars in the city center as early as 1999 (Hernández-Morales, 2022). By reducing parking facilities, 76% of people use non-motorized vehicles for transport (Jiacheng, 2019). Kuss and Kimberly (2022) also identified workplace parking charges as an effective measure, with a study by Cervero (2005) finding that no free and available workplace parking spaces increased the likelihood of commuting by public transport up to 90%. Since approximately twenty bikes fit in one parking space (Litman, 2013), reducing parking spaces provides more space for cycling or pedestrian pathways, green carbon sinks, or enhancing public transport networks (Nieuwenhuijsen and Khreis, 2016).
Policy #2: Public transport- / transit-oriented development (TOD)
This instrument encourages mixed-use, compact, pedestrian and cycling friendly development that is centered around public transport through land use planning (KonSULT, 2016). This design improves public transport efficiency, encourag more alternative mode travel (KonSULT, 2016), and increase the demand for public transport (Guttikunda and Mohan, 2014). This policy has been directly linked to a decreased use in private vehicles and an increased use in public transport commuting (KonSULT, 2016).
Successful implementation requires land use planning to be centered around public transport nodes. This includes housing, essential services like schools and healthcare, offices and employment opportunities, and shops centered around public transport stations. In the case of Stockholm, job-housing centers were created along their rail-served axial passages (KonSULT, 2016). Their strategic urban planning substantially decreased car-dependency as well as GHG emissions resulting in 52% of passengers commuting by public transport, 27% walking and cycling, and 21% using private vehicles (KonSULT, 2016). To be successful, the public transport system in the area needs to be high-quality, safe, reliable, and well-connected (Vuchic, 2007).
Policy #3: Expansion of pedestrian and cycling areas and routes
Urban planning measures which reduce passenger travel demand have been identified as key measures to reduce GHG emissions (He and Qiu, 2016). Khreis et al. (2018) suggest that policymakers should actively focus urban planning efforts on supporting modal shifts towards walking, cycling, and public transport. This reduces GHG emissions from private vehicles and generates health benefits by encouraging people to be more active in their daily routines (Nieuwenhuijsen and Khreis, 2016).
To increase the use of walking and cycling, design policies should focus on reducing the interference of relevant paths with vehicles, providing necessary activities along routes such as shopping, ensuring safety on the paths, and designing routes for social cohesion by providing street furniture, green spaces, and local businesses such as cafes and shops (KonSULT, 2016). Many studies found that people spend six times more when walking to shops compared to those who drive to shops, proving that local businesses would also benefit from more pedestrianization (Nieuwenhuijsen and Khreis, 2016). Greater consideration in urban planning for the needs of locals can result in pedestrians, cyclists, and drivers changing their behavior to reduce motorized traffic (KonSULT, 2016).
Policy #4: Regulatory restrictions
Car-free and speed limit zones policies have been implemented by several European cities. In Ponteverde, a portion of the city center is completely car-free, and the rest has a speed limit of 30km/h (Jiacheng, 2019). This resulted in 70% of people traveling by foot, 22% by private vehicle, 6% by bike, and 3% by public transport (Burgen, 2020). Other European cities have shifted to car-free city centers. Madrid implemented a limit on non-residential vehicles access to the pedestrianized area of its city center (Cathcart-Keays, 2015), while Bologna introduced a car-free zone in its city center which resulted in a 60% decrease in passenger car use in the area (Topp and Pharoah, 1994). Car-free zones increase pedestrian and cycling activity, ensure safety in these areas, and encourage better public transport connections. Zhang et al.’s (2019) research even showed that zone and driving restrictions increased public transport use up to 25%. Some concerns are that traffic will not decrease but diverge to surrounding areas (KonSULT, 2016) and that this policy is not a long-term solution without being supported by the expansion of other modes of transport (Zhang et al., 2019). This can be tackled by a policy package approach and will be considered further below.Policy #5: Car-free days
Car-free days are an effective policy to reduce GHG emissions in urban areas and encourage residents to discover new mobility methods such as walking, cycling, or by public transport (Baierl, 2022). The policy has been highly successful with some cities reporting a 75%-78% reduction in black carbon (Nieuwenhuijsen and Khreis, 2016). Similar results were reported on car-free days in Belgium (Glazener et al., 2022).
Car-free days generate additional public health and economic benefits. A report on car-free days by Baierl (2022) summarized the multiple benefits of car-free days including reduced fuel consumption, improved air quality, decreased noise pollution, increase in physical activity, increase in spending in the local area, and increased social cohesion. Baierl (2022) also highlights the cost-effectiveness and efficiency of this policy measure asserting that implementation requires no infrastructure. 62% of EU urban residents support one car-free day a week (Baierl, 2022).
Recommendation: EU Policy Package Approach
A mixed policy approach is recommended for the five policies described and is the policy approach many European cities use when implementing policies to reduce car use (Buehler et al. 2017). Policies in isolation are ineffective. A policy package ensures that banning cars in cities is supported by alternative and appealing modes of transport (Buehler et al., 2017; Nieuwenhuijsen and Khreis, 2016), which is also the shift that the new EU Mobility Framework emphasizes (Goyal, 2022). Coordination between parking management, public transport, walking and pedestrian areas, regulatory restrictions, and car-free days are required to successfully reduce the demand for cars in cities. This also requires the involvement of influential actors. Many studies found that local governments are the most important stakeholders for the reduction of GHG and systemic change (Bulkeley and Castán, 2013; Kuss and Kimberly, 2022). Involving the correct stakeholders to leverage car-free policies is important for policy implementation.
Oslo has been identified as a city which effectively implemented a policy package around reducing cars in its urban area. The city announced its aspirations to make the city center a car-free zone by 2019. They implemented a car-free zone on their central ring road, built 64 kilometers of new bike lanes, and removed parking spaces (Cathcart-Keays, 2015). Since these policies were implemented, Oslo experienced a 9% decline in GHG emissions from passenger cars a year after its implementation (Agency for Climate, 2022).
Timeline for Policy Implementation: Case Study of Vienna
The next few years are crucial in ensuring that the 2030 and 2040 climate neutrality targets are reached. By 2030, a 55% reduction in GHG emissions must be achieved, and car-free policies can help aid in this. In line with the new EU Mobility Framework, cities should aim to implement Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans (SUMPs) to increase the use of public transport and active modes of transport (Goyal, 2022).
Looking at Vienna as a case study and as a potential city to be one of the 100 cities to become climate neutral by 2030, the following targets are suggested in line with the new EU Mobility Framework and SUMPs (Goyal, 2022). GHG emissions from private vehicles made up 33% of the total emissions in 2019 (City of Vienna, 2022). By 2040, Vienna aims to achieve climate neutrality (City of Vienna, 2022), but it has potential to become climate neutral by 2030 by shifting to green mobility faster (Goyal, 2022). To achieve this, parking spaces need to be reduced 30% by 2025 and 80% by 2030. Urban planning around public transport stations need to ensure that by 2025, 50% of all stations are easily accessible, safe, and enjoyable to reach by walking and cycling, and increased to 100% by 2030. Further, by 2030, active modes of transport (walking and cycling) should make up 50% of the modal split. By 2025, the entire first district of Vienna needs to be completely car-free and by 2030, the area inside of the Gürtel should be car-free and 50% of the city needs to have a 30km/h speed limit. Lastly, car-free days need to be implemented at least once a week by 2025 and by 2030, weekends need to be completely car-free.
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