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The food we produce is the single largest human pressure on nature, as food production is responsible for up to 30% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Even if fossil fuel emissions were stopped immediately, we would not be able to meet the 1.5-degree target in the Paris Agreement because of food-related emissions. One way to tackle this problem is a general shift to more plant-based diets. European Union (EU) policies can support this transition, but they need to be more targeted and comprehensive to nudge the population effectively towards choosing more sustainable products.
Contextualizing the Climate Crisis and Food Production Impacts
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) warns of dire consequences if we fail to limit global warming to 1.5° (Global Warming of 1.5, n.d.). Human activities are already causing biodiversity loss and a rapidly changing climate (“Living Planet Report 2022,” n.d.). Intensive agriculture has disrupted natural ecosystems (Tilman et al., 2017). Global food production practices are unsustainable, being responsible for up to 30% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Ritchie et al., 2022). Even if fossil fuel emissions were stopped immediately, the 1.5-degree target would still be exceeded if food-related emissions are not addressed (Ritchie & Roser, 2024b), (Clark et al., 2020). Methane emissions from livestock are significant contributors to GHG emissions (A Summary of the UN FAO Methane Emissions in Livestock and Rice Systems, 2023). Heavy rainfall, flooding, or drought can lead to crop failures and e.g. the performance of livestock, such as dairy cows, decreases in hot weather (Forum Ökologisch-Soziale Marktwirtschaft e.V. (FÖS) et al., 2021).
While the EU is implementing relevant policies, such as the Farm to Fork Strategy and the European Green Deal, these initiatives must be more comprehensive and targeted to effectively reduce food-related GHG emissions to align with the 1.5°C goal of the Paris Agreement. By examining existing policies and their impact on dietary choices, identifying opportunities for improvement, and proposing recommendations for policy reform, this statement aims to contribute to developing effective policies for addressing climate change and promoting sustainable food systems.
Current EU Policies
The European Green Deal is a tool for the EU to become the first climate-neutral continent, reducing net GHG emissions by at least 55% by 2030, compared to 1990 levels (The European Green Deal, 2021). The EU does not have a specific target for reducing GHG emissions solely from the agricultural sector by 2030.
The Farm to Fork Strategy addresses food security, nutrition, and environmental sustainability. According to the European Commission, it aims to ensure a transition to a fair, healthy, and environmentally friendly food system (Farm to Fork Strategy, n.d.-b). It recognizes the role of dietary choices in mitigating environmental impact and emphasizes the importance of education but the “concept of sustainability remains ambiguous as no clear conceptual boundaries are established, with many objectives not translated into specific actions” (Boix-Fayós & De Vente, 2023).
The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is the European Union framework for supporting agriculture and rural development (CAP Funds, 2024). Historically, the CAP focused on stability in agricultural markets and an increase in efficiency to ensure food security post-war, which led to overproduction and eventually low prices for quality food products became a policy priority (Birt et al., 2017). Retailers assumed a position of power while farmers caring for their local environments were not important to the policy. The CAP significantly shapes the food system through agricultural subsidies, focusing on animal-based foods accounting for 82% of subsidies, despite supplying a smaller portion of EU calories and proteins (Kortleve et al., 2024).
The Voluntary Coupled Support (VCS) ties payments to agricultural production, leading to increased supply and lower prices for subsidized products, particularly meat and dairy, thereby contributing to overproduction and overconsumption (WWF – World Wide Fund For Nature & RSK ADAS Ltd, 2023). The EU fixed price mechanism, aiming to prevent product prices from being lower than what is economically viable for producers, does not apply to fruit, vegetables, and organic food, despite their environmental benefits (EU Policies Do Not Favour Sustainable Production or Consumption - New, n.d.).
“Approximately 38% of the EU budget (equivalent to 0.4% of the Union’s GDP) is spent on agriculture and rural development” (EU Agriculture Spending Focused on Results | FAO, n.d.). Understanding the allocation and priorities within the Multiannual Financial Framework can inform recommendations for policy improvement. Critics claim that most subsidies do not support the transition to more sustainable diets as more money goes towards farming animals than plants (Niranjan, 2024). Contradictions and inconsistencies are raising concerns about the effectiveness of agri-environmental measures in addressing issues exacerbated by agricultural support policies (De Schutter et al., 2020).
Opportunities
Regulations apply to all EU member states and are binding in their entirety (Types of EU Law, n.d.). Directives set out specific objectives that EU countries must achieve but allow flexibility in the execution. This could be useful, as the path to achieving more sustainable diets will likely be different in each member state due to different eating habits and cultural norms.
The EAT-Lancet Commission claims: “a diet that includes more plant-based foods and fewer animal source foods is healthy, sustainable, and good for both people and planet” (EAT-Lancet Commission Brief for Policymakers - EAT, 2019). It outlined the so-called “Planetary Health Diet” which focuses on increasing the consumption of fruits, vegetables, nuts, and legumes while decreasing meat and dairy.
A case study for Denmark showed that emissions reductions of up to 86.5% would be possible if the EAT Lancet Planetary Health Diet was implemented fully (Prag & Henriksen, 2020). Hungary implemented a "junk food tax" in 2011, targeting foods high in sugar and salt. It led to decreased consumption of processed foods and increased consumption of unprocessed options while also prompting manufacturers to reformulate products for healthiness (NDCs, 2024). Educational campaigns around the tax were a big part of creating the change, which exemplifies the combining of measures to increase their overall effectiveness. In Brazil's National School Feeding Programme, 30% of the budget must be spent on food from family farms and the food should be sustainable and seasonal (World Health Organization: WHO, 2021). Public facilities can play a huge part in promoting dietary shifts.
A step in the right direction was the Global Stocktake at COP28, which calls on parties to attain sustainable, climate-resilient food and agriculture production as a means of adaptation. However, some critical objectives were not met, including the IPCC recommendations to transform food systems and food receiving only 4% of all climate finance (Food for a Stable Climate, n.d.).
Challenges and Limitations
Current climate change mitigation efforts primarily target production-based emissions, potentially leading to emission displacement to other regions (carbon leakage) (Foong et al., 2022).
Another big challenge is choosing the right type of support. Some subsidies paid by governments to producers provide incentives to producers without incentives for consumers to reduce consumption (Laborde et al., 2020).
Historically, change in dietary behaviors in response to interventions is slow (Godfray et al., 2018). However, social norms can evolve through collaborative initiatives involving civil society, health organizations, and government.
Not everyone can adopt an alternative diet. For example, traditional Inuit communities in the Arctic can only farm or hunt animals because they have limited opportunities to grow or purchase other types of food as well as anyone with a limited purchasing power. The rising food prices due to climate change disproportionately burden low-income earners (Forum Ökologisch-Soziale Marktwirtschaft e.V. (FÖS) et al., 2021).
It also is challenging to include farmers in the equation. The shift to more sustainable diets must work for the farmers producing the foods to create a truly sustainable change (Niranjan, 2024).
Political factors have to be taken into consideration as well. There have been many instances of progressive action being blocked by different political actors (Lang & Mason, 2017b). Fostering collaboration across different disciplines is needed.
Recommendations for Policy Improvement
State intervention and aligned food policies are crucial for promoting sustainable diets. Market forces often prioritize corporate interests over broader societal goals (Lang & Mason, 2017). This power imbalance between consumers and companies necessitates a state-led framework. As a priority for the newly-elected EU parliament and other EU leaders, the CAP should be reformed with subsidies redirected from meat production to vegetables (Birt et al., 2017). This should happen within the first two years to implement the new policies quickly. The EU trilogue process can help implement policies faster and more efficiently.
A European strategy for healthy and sustainable diets can entail developing dietary guidelines, accountability mechanisms, and monitoring systems tailored to different regions and cultures of Europe. Trustworthy and authoritative guidelines are essential to counteract the abundance of often contradictory and inaccurate dietary information available in the media and online (NDCs, 2024a). National-level food-based dietary guidelines offer evidence-based, context-specific recommendations and serve as a foundation for public dietary education while informing policies across the entire food system. Integrating nutrition education into education curricula and professional training for nutrition educators is essential. This should be implemented in all member states by 2027 to complement the implementation of the recommended policies and strengthen the support for them.
Taxation and incentives aimed at curbing the overproduction of meat are crucial in addressing climate and biodiversity crises to avoid carbon leakage, especially when combined with efforts to promote more sustainable diets. (WWF – World Wide Fund For Nature & RSK ADAS Ltd, 2023). Policy intervention is crucial to align EU diets with nutrition guidelines and environmental sustainability targets, with food group-specific taxes being effective tools, e.g. for red and processed meat, a consistent increase in average EU household purchases is projected until 2050 without dietary policy intervention (Latka et al., 2021). Specific financial incentives and taxes, such as subsidies for farmers and vouchers for fresh foods, can enhance the affordability and accessibility of nutritious foods for consumers (NDCs, 2024c). By 2029 food group-specific taxes and incentives should be introduced and monitoring systems to track policy impact established.
Engagement of all relevant sectors and stakeholders is crucial, along with strengthening their capacities to advocate for policies supporting sustainable food choices (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2017). In the realm of public sector catering, particularly in schools and hospitals, there is potential for improving population-level nutrition (Birt et al., 2017). Umbrella organizations like EUPHA play a pivotal role in influencing policy dialogues with the European Commission, while other stakeholders such as BEUC, EPHA, and EuroHealthNet are increasingly engaged in consumer protection and advocacy efforts. Additionally, advertisers and the media are key players in shaping food market dynamics. Cities can support access to healthy, sustainable food by implementing strategies such as transforming menus in public buildings, ensuring healthy food availability in all neighborhoods, prohibiting fast-food advertising, and encouraging retailers and restaurants to promote sustainable meal options (C40 Knowledge Community, n.d.).
A European strategy for healthy and sustainable diets can entail developing dietary guidelines, accountability mechanisms, and monitoring systems tailored to different regions and cultures of Europe. Trustworthy and authoritative guidelines are essential to counteract the abundance of often contradictory and inaccurate dietary information available in the media and online (NDCs, 2024a). National-level food-based dietary guidelines offer evidence-based, context-specific recommendations and serve as a foundation for public dietary education while informing policies across the entire food system. Integrating nutrition education into education curricula and professional training for nutrition educators is essential. This should be implemented in all member states by 2027 to complement the implementation of the recommended policies and strengthen the support for them.
Taxation and incentives aimed at curbing the overproduction of meat are crucial in addressing climate and biodiversity crises to avoid carbon leakage, especially when combined with efforts to promote more sustainable diets. (WWF – World Wide Fund For Nature & RSK ADAS Ltd, 2023). Policy intervention is crucial to align EU diets with nutrition guidelines and environmental sustainability targets, with food group-specific taxes being effective tools, e.g. for red and processed meat, a consistent increase in average EU household purchases is projected until 2050 without dietary policy intervention (Latka et al., 2021). Specific financial incentives and taxes, such as subsidies for farmers and vouchers for fresh foods, can enhance the affordability and accessibility of nutritious foods for consumers (NDCs, 2024c). By 2029 food group-specific taxes and incentives should be introduced and monitoring systems to track policy impact established.
Engagement of all relevant sectors and stakeholders is crucial, along with strengthening their capacities to advocate for policies supporting sustainable food choices (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2017). In the realm of public sector catering, particularly in schools and hospitals, there is potential for improving population-level nutrition (Birt et al., 2017). Umbrella organizations like EUPHA play a pivotal role in influencing policy dialogues with the European Commission, while other stakeholders such as BEUC, EPHA, and EuroHealthNet are increasingly engaged in consumer protection and advocacy efforts. Additionally, advertisers and the media are key players in shaping food market dynamics. Cities can support access to healthy, sustainable food by implementing strategies such as transforming menus in public buildings, ensuring healthy food availability in all neighborhoods, prohibiting fast-food advertising, and encouraging retailers and restaurants to promote sustainable meal options (C40 Knowledge Community, n.d.).
Aligning EU Policies with Climate Goals
A significant portion of the EU budget is dedicated to agriculture and rural development, with criticism including subsidies favoring animal farming over plant-based agriculture and leading to overproduction and overconsumption. The EU lacks targets for reducing agricultural emissions, and even the more ambitious Farm-to-Fork strategy is criticized for its lack of clear actions. Challenges and limitations include carbon leakage, subsidies that don't align with consumer incentives, consumer behaviors influenced by convenience and affordability, and cultural preferences. Marginalized communities may face disproportionate burdens. Addressing farmer needs and political resistance is crucial. Overall, while the current policies signal a commitment to sustainability, there are challenges in implementation and effectiveness, particularly in aligning subsidies with environmental objectives and promoting sustainable food systems.
This policy statement explored how EU policies could effectively support the shift to more sustainable diets to reduce agricultural emissions. The focus on sustainable diets has shifted from personal responsibility to the importance of social, economic, and environmental factors (De Schutter et al., 2020). The EU food system requires a multi-faceted policy improvement approach. This includes reforming CAP subsidies to promote sustainable diets, developing comprehensive dietary guidelines, and implementing targeted education programs. Additionally, food group-specific taxes and incentives can encourage healthy and environmentally friendly choices, while financial instruments can ensure affordability. Collaboration between public institutions, consumer groups, industry, and educators is crucial for driving policy change and public awareness campaigns.
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